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Lingvosoft Online Dictionary
In this article the terms "Eastern Orthodox" and "Orthodox" are used, for the sake of brevity, as synonyms.
The Eastern Orthodox Church is the body of Christians whose origins extend directly back to Jesus and his Apostles through unbroken Apostolic Succession. Its traditions and practices are considered to be the most ancient and authentic form of Christianity as close to as it was practiced by Christ's Apostles themselves. It is then seen as developing its doctrines further through a series of church councils, the most authoritative being the "Seven Ecumenical Councils" held between the 4th and 8th centuries.
The present-day influence of the Orthodox Church encompasses the territories associated with the former Byzantine and Russian empires: Eastern Europe, Asia (Russia/Siberia), parts of the Middle East and Africa (encompassing national Orthodox jurisdictions such as American Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, etc.) Today, although Orthodoxy's strongest influence can be seen in Greece, Russia, Serbia (which separates Greece from Italy) and Georgia, the Orthodox Church has a presence in a great many countries, with very large communities in the USA and Australia.
Contents
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1 Beliefs
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3 Who Orthodox Christians Are Historically 4 Current Issues 5 Eastern Orthodox churches |
6 Related articles
7 External links
Beliefs
Orthodox Christians believe in a single God who is both three and one—Triune—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, "one in essence and undivided." The Holy Trinity is three "unconfused" distinct divine persons (hypostases), with no overlap or modality among them, who share one divine essence (ousia)—uncreated, immaterial and eternal.
The Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from Whom is begotten the Son eternally and also from Whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith (Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed).
1 icon of the Last Judgment
"Salvation" for Eastern Orthodox signifies a change in Human nature that occurred because of Jesus' life and death. Man, in Orthodox belief, was originally created perfect, but through his own actions he embraced evil through disobedience to God. Because of man’s fall he was condemned, when he died, to go to Hell (Hades);it is believed that from Adam to St John the Baptist, all men went to a place of separation from God. But when Jesus came into the world he himself was Perfect Man and Perfect God united. Through his participation in becoming human, human nature was changed allowing them to participate in the divine. This process is retroactive back to the beginning of time, thus saving Adam and Eve and all Orthodox believers after. Orthodox Christianity does not teach that one must be Orthodox to be saved; rather, it teaches that its beliefs and practices alone are authentic and complete.
In contrast to Protestantism, which generally relies upon the Bible as the sole, ultimate doctrinal authority, Eastern Orthodoxy relies upon Tradition, a broad term encompassing the Bible, The Creed, the decrees of the Seven Ecumenical Councils; the writings of those considered the "Church Fathers", as well as Orthodox laws (canons), liturgical books and icons, etc. In reliance upon tradition, Orthodox point to Paul: “Therefore, brethren, stand fast, and hold the traditions which ye have been taught, whether by our spoken word, or by our epistle.” (2 Thess. 2:15). The Orthodox Church believes that the Holy Spirit works though history to reveal truth to the members of the Church, and that He weeds out falsehood in order that the Truth may grow. Many traditions of the Church developed slowly over the course of centuries during the height of the Byzantine and Russian empires; while non-Orthodox consider such traditions man-made, Orthodox believe they are the result of the action of the Holy Spirit.
Eastern Orthodox believe an extensive oral tradition predates the texts of the New Testament; Orthodoxy is thus not "bibliocentric." Orthodox hold the Greek Septuagint translation and version of the Hebrew Scriptures as its canonical standard, in contrast to Protestants, who consider the Hebrew text the authentic "original." Generally what Orthodox call the "Old Testament" is seldom used in Church services, excepting the Psalms and excerpts regarded as foretelling Jesus. The Bible in Orthodoxy is not always interpreted literally. The actual attitude of Eastern Orthodox toward science varies, with conservative believers opposed to the concept of evolution in the origins and development of life.
Orthodoxy considers truth to be seen in the "Consensus of the Fathers", a perceived thread of agreement running through the patristic writings to the early Church and the Apostles. Those who disagreed with what came to be considered the consensus were not accepted as authentic "Fathers." All theological concepts must be in agreement with that consensus.
Eastern Orthodox theologians tended to rely more on Greek philosophers than did the West, often borrowing the categories and vocabulary of Neo-Platonism to explain Christian doctrine, though not necessarily accepting all their theories.
The traditional practice of the Orthodox is to have a spiritual father (or mother) to whom one confesses and who treats the sin on an individual basis. An experienced spiritual father will know how and when to apply strictness in dealing with sin and when to effectively "bend the rules."
In the Eastern Orthodox Church a saint is defined as anyone who is currently in Heaven, whether recognized here on earth or not. By this definition, Adam and Eve, Moses, the various Prophets, Martyrs for the Faith, the Angels and Archangels are all given the title of Saint. There is a formal service in the Orthodox Church whereby a saint is recognized by the entire church called "glorification," however, it is believed that the person in question was already a saint prior to this recognition, and even if this recognition had not come, he still would have been a saint. Recently, in order to avoid abuses, the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople has issued special encyclical letters (tomoi) in which the Church acknowledges the popular veneration of a saint. Glorification usually happens after believers have already begun venerating a saint. There are numerous small local followings of countless saints that have not yet been recognized by the entire Orthodox Church.
A strong element in favor of glorification can the perceived "miraculous" condition of physical remains (relics), although that alone is not considered sufficient. In Orthodox countries it is often the custom to re-use graves after three to five years due to limited space. Bones are respectfully washed and placed in an ossuary, often with the person's name written on the skull. Occasionally when a body is exhumed something believed to be miraculous occurs to reveal the person's sainthood. There have been numerous occurrences where the exhumed bones are said to suddenly give off a wonderful fragrance, like flowers; or sometimes the body is said to be found [[incorruptibility|incorrupt despite having not been embalmed (traditionally the Orthodox do not embalm the dead) and having been buried for three years.
For the Orthodox, body and soul both comprise the person, and in the end, body and soul will be reunited; therefore, the body of a saint shares in the holiness of the soul of the saint.
Because the Orthodox Church shows no true distinction between the living and the dead (believing the saints are alive in Heaven), the Orthodox treat the saints as if they were still here. They venerate them and ask for their prayers, and consider them brothers and sisters in Christ Jesus. Saints are venerated and loved and asked to intercede for salvation, but officially they are not given the same veneration accorded God, because their holiness is beleived to come from God. As a general rule only clergy will touch relics in order to move them or carry them in procession, however, in veneration the faithful will kiss the relic to show love and respect toward the saint. Every altar in every Orthodox church contains relics, usually of martyrs. The Church building interiors are covered with the icons of saints.
The Orthodox Church practices baptism for infants and adults as the moment one is born again into Christ. The person entering the baptismal font is not seen as the same person who emerges, so the person is given a new name, used exclusively and always the name of a saint. Instead of birthdays, Orthodox celebrate the day of the saint for whom the person is named.
Heaven, to Eastern Orthodox, is not a static state. They believe mankind will be restored to perfection, but perfection not as an ultimate end in and of itself; adverse traits will be gone from the human race and man will be as originally intended. They also believe that for those who reject the love and mercy of God, the experience of His presence will be unbearably painful.
The church building has many symbolic meanings. Perhaps the oldest and most prominent is the concept that the Church is the Ark (as in Noah’s) in which the world is saved from the flood of temptations. And so, most Orthodox Churches are rectangular in design. Another popular shape, especially for churches with large choirs is the Cross. Architectural patterns may vary in shape and complexity, with chapels sometimes added around the main church, or triple altars, but in general, the symbolic layout of the church remains the same.
The Church building is divided into three main parts: the Narthex (entrance hall), the Nave and the Altar.
Narthex: The Narthex is the connection between the Church and the outside world and for this reason catechumens (pre-baptized Orthodox) and Non-Orthodox stand here. Dividing the narthex from the Nave are a pair of gates (usually called the "Royal Doors") which are opened during services but through which the catechumen does not pass without permission. There are usually two large brass candle stands on either side representing the pillars of fire that went before the Hebrews when fleeing from Egypt.
Nave: The Nave is the main body of the Church where the people stand during the services. In most Orthodox Churches there are no pews but rather stacidia (like a high chair with foldup seat - it has arm rests high enough to be used while standing - see the picture of the monks). Traditionally there is no sitting during services with the only exceptions being during the reading of the Psalms, and the priest's sermon. The people stand before God. Orthodox, in general, do not even kneel; however because of the influence of Roman Catholic and Protestant ideals in western countries it is not uncommon to find pews and kneelers in more modern church structures.
The walls are normally covered from floor to ceiling with icons or wall paintings of saints or stories from the Bible. Generally Christ is depicted on the right side, Mary on the left. Traditionally men therefore stand on the right and women on the left. In many modern churches families stand together.
Above the Nave in the Dome of the Church is the icon of Christ the Almighty (Pantokratoros = Ruler of the Universe). Directly hanging below the dome (In more traditional churches) is usually a kind of circular chandelier with depictions of the saints and apostles, called the horos; during certain moments of the service, it is swung.
Iconostasis: Originally called the templon, it is a screen or wall between the Nave and the Altar, which is covered with icons. There will normally be three doors, one in the middle and one on either side. The central one is traditionally called the "Beautiful Gate" and is only used by the clergy. There are times when this gate is closed during the service and a curtain is drawn. The doors on either side are called the "Deacons Doors" or “Angel Doors” as they often have depicted on them the Archangels Michael and Gabriel. These doors are used by Deacons and servers to enter the Altar. To the right of the Beautiful Gate is the Icon of Christ, then the Icon of St John the Baptist; to the left the Icon of the Mother of God (a standard Eastern Orthodox title for Mary), always shown holding Christ; and then the Icon of the Saint to whom the Church is dedicated. There are normally many other icons on the iconostasis but these vary from church to church. Above and behind the iconostasis (if the iconostasis doesn’t reach the ceiling) is the Panagia (All Holy), the Virgin Mary with Christ blessing all. Oil lamps burn before all the icons.
Altar: The term Altar refers to not just the Altar Table but to the whole area behind the Iconostasis: it is the 'Holy of Holies' of the Church. The church, if at all possible is always aligned with the altar facing East. The Priest also faces East when before the Holy Table (away from the congregation) offering prayers for the people to God and then coming out through the Beautiful Gate to give God's 'Good News' (Gospel) to the people. To the left of the Altar Table will be the "Prosthesis Table" (Table of Preparation) where the bread and wine are prepared before the Liturgy (Eucharist) begins.
“A picture is worth a thousand words”, is an appropriate phrase to use when describing one of the original uses for icons. It is believed by the Orthodox that the first Icons were painted by the Evangelist Luke of Christ and the Virgin Mary, and that the biblical prohibitions against material depictions have been altered by Christ (as God) taking on material form. Once God took human form, that human form could be depicted. Orthodox regard their depiction of Christ as accurate, with Christ having Brown semi-curly hair, brown eyes, and Semitic features – The Virgin Mary being similar). The personal, improvisatory and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Orthodox Iconography before the 17th century, when Russian icon painting was strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from both Protestant and Catholic Europe. Greek icon painting also began to take on a strong romantic western influence for a period and the difference between "some" Orthodox icons and western secular art began to vanish. Now, in modern times, a strong desire to return to the more traditional and symbolic representations is often found. Icons are typically paintings on wood, often small. A properly appointed Orthodox home, for example, will have icons hanging on the wall, usually on an eastern facing wall, and in a central location where the family can pray together.
Icons are often illuminated with a candle or oil lamp. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for oil lamps are preferred because they are natural and burn very cleanly.) Besides the practical purpose of making Icons visible in an otherwise dark church, both candles and oil lamps symbolize the saint(s) illuminated by the Christ, the Light of the World.
Tales of miraculous icons that moved, spoke, cried, bled, or gushed fragrant myrrh are quite common, though it has always been considered that the "Message" of such an event was for the immediate faithful involved and therefore does not usually attract crowds (as in the Roman Catholic Church where thousands flock to see such a presumed miracle).
Some of the most venerated Russian Orthodox icons are treated in separate articles. See also Category:Eastern Orthodox icons
Orthodox sing their services. Services consist in part of a dialog between the clergy and the People (sometimes represented by the Choir or the Psaltis (Chanter). In each case the text is sung or chanted following a prescribed musical form. Almost nothing is ever simply read. The only “speaking” may be done in the form of a sermon if the priest chooses to give one. The church has developed 8 Modes or Tones, which cycle, each week presenting the service in a different melody/chord structure. There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures. It is common, especially in the United States, for a choir to learn many different styles and to mix them, singing one response in Greek, then English, then Russian, etc. This adds to the beauty and universality of the service.
Incense is burned during all services in the Eastern Orthodox Church. The spiritual significance of incense is simple and straightforward: it symbolizes the congenial ardor that Orthodox believe ought to characterize the life of a believing Christian, as well as evoking Christian integrity and goodness; it is considered prayer rising up to God.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, monasticism holds a very special and important place. Far more common than in the Roman Catholic Church. Orthodox monks lead very strict lives of prayer for the world. Monks and nuns do not, in general, do social work or teach school, leaving those for lay people. Monks are considered spiritual warriors using prayer and discipline to conquer their shortcomings. Bishops are almost always chosen from monks.
Many (but not all) Orthodox seminaries are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for ordination with participation in the community's life of prayer. Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called hieromonk (priest-monk); monks who have been ordained to the deaconate are called hierodeacon (deacon-monk).
For the Orthodox, Mother is the correct term for nuns who have been tonsured to the rank of Stavrophore or higher. Novices and Rassophores are addressed as " Sister". Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called monachoi, and their common living space, a monastery.
Since its founding, the Church spread to different places, and the leaders of the Church in each place came to be known as episkopoi (overseers, plural of episkopos, overseer - Gr. Επίσκοπος), which became "bishop" in English. The other ordained roles are presbyter (Gr. Πρεσβύτερος, elder), which became "prester" and then "priest" in English, and diakonos (Gr. Διάκονος, assistant), which became "deacon" in English (see also subdeacon). There are numerous administrative positions in the clergy that carry additional titles. In the Greek tradition, bishops who occupy an ancient See are called Metropolitan, while the lead bishop in Greece is the Archbishop. Priests can be archpriests, archimandrites, or protopresbyters. Deacons can be archdeacons or protodeacons as well. The position of deacon is often occupied for life. The deacon also acts as an assistant to a bishop.
The Orthodox Church has always allowed married priests and deacons, provided the marriage takes place before ordination. In general, or ideally, congregational priests should be married, as they will be dealing with married couples; unmarried priests should normally be in monasteries. Widowed priests and deacons are not allowed to remarry. It is common for such a member of the clergy to retire to a monastery. This also applies to the widowed wives of clergy, they do not remarry and usually become nuns. Bishops are always celibate. Only males may be bishops, priests, or deacons. Nevertheless, Orthodox consider men and women equal before God.
In the earliest days of the Church, Christians confessed their sins to each other publicly, and publicly forgave each other, announcing God's forgiveness. This was possible in part because only believers were meeting together, and they were close-knit communities in which everyone trusted each other. As time went on, and more people came into the Church, some people attending were seekers or catechumens rather than faithful members, and believers began to feel uncomfortable confessing in public. Then the practice developed of members quietly confessing to God (typically in front of an icon of Jesus blessing the icon's beholder) in the presence of an elder or priest, who would offer counsel and confirm God's forgiveness. This would take place in the context of a series of prayers said by the priest and penitent together, often including Psalm 51 and other scriptures and prayers. However, it should be noted that anyone with sufficient experience and knowledge, if given a blessing from a Bishop, can hear confessions. Thus, a confessor might be a priest, monk, nun, man, woman, etc. It may make sense that married couples confess to a married person, or a woman confess to another, more experienced, woman. Such things are not unusual. However, only a priest can read the prayers of forgiveness over the person in preparation for communion. Repentance is essential preparation for receiving the Eucharist. The Orthodox Church has never bothered with the concept of anonymity in confession the way Roman Catholics have. Orthodox confession often takes the form of a discussion between the confessor and the penitent concerning his or her sins and the best course of action to take in overcoming them. Penitence is not handed out in the same way as with Catholics either. Usually all that is required is the attempt in overcoming the sin or making restitution with the person wronged. Sin is not viewed by the Orthodox as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, but rather as a mistake that needs correction. Thus one should feel sorry for one's mistakes because one has failed to reach the goal. Because of this approach, guilt has never been a strong motivator with the Orthodox, nor has shame. The recognition that we are all human and occasionally make mistakes and that all we have to do is change our direction and correct the problem is more in line with the true meaning of Repentance: "to change one's mind.
The practice of fasting is one of many Jewish practices the earliest Christians kept, and which Orthodox Christians continue to keep to this day. The Orthodox approach to fasting is quite different from the Latin West who see fasting as a penitence for sins. The Orthodox, on the other hand, are reminded that perfect man, as in the garden of Eden, ate only vegetables and fruits. The Orthodox seeks to recapture paradise through fasting, to regain a measure of purity. It is never looked on as a hardship or punishment, but rather a great privilege and joy (although it can be very difficult). Fasting typically involves differing levels of abstinence depending on the day or season and ranges from a complete fast from all food and drink to abstinence from all animal products (meat, dairy, eggs, etc.), olive oil, and wine. Shellfish and vegetable oils are permitted on certain days and weeks of the fast as is wine. Thus, most fasting guidelines resemble vegan vegetarianism with all frying/cooking done simply with water (no oil), and most vegetarian recipes are appropriate during fasts. In addition to restrictions on food, it is generally understood that married couples abstain from sexual relations during a fast. Monasteries typically have additional fasts; although there can be a great deal of variation between monastaries, they typically abstain from all animal products on Monday as well as Wednesday and Friday; and they never eat meat or poultry, fish being the only exception. The time and type of fast is generally uniform for all Orthodox Christians; the times of fasting are part of the ecclesial calendar. In this way, the whole church fasts together, and the whole church feasts together (when the fast is broken). Infants, women who are pregnant or breastfeeding, and people with other medical needs are often encouraged not to follow the usual fasting guidelines, but to work out alternatives with their priest or spiritual elder. Also, if someone wishes to follow a stricter fast, they are generally encouraged to do so only under the guidance of their priest or spiritual elder. Fasting without prayer was often called the "fast of demons" by the Church fathers, since the demons neither eat nor pray. Therefore, fasting should always be accompanied by prayer and almsgiving.
There are four major fasting periods during the year. They are:
In addition, except during feasting weeks, members of the Orthodox Church fast on every Wednesday in commemoration of Christ's betrayal by Judas Iscariot, and on every Friday in commemoration of his crucifixion. Monastics often include Mondays as a fast day in commemoration of the Angels.
Because of the movable nature of Pascha, the number of fast days varies each year, but in general the Orthodox Christian can expect to spend at least 1/3 of the year fasting.
The Eucharist is at the center of Orthodox Christianity. In practice, it is partaking of the bread and wine in the midst of the Divine Liturgy with the rest of the church. The bread and wine are believed to be the genuine Body and Blood of the Christ Jesus. The Eastern Orthodox Church has never described exactly how this occurs, or gone into the detail that the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches have in the West. The doctrine of transubstantiation was formulated after the Great Schism took place, and the Orthodox churches have never formally affirmed or denied it, preferring to state simply that it is a mystery and sacrament. Long before the year 1054 it was the practice to in some way hide the mysterious process within the liturgy. In the Catholic Church of the Latin Rite, this had been accidently achieved when Latin, in which the liturgy was celebrated, ceased to be understood by the people; in the Orthodox churches the altar area was surrounded by pillars with curtains in between. This structure called a templon represented the Temple and the Holy of Holies. Later, it became a solid wall covered with Icons and is in modern usage called an iconostasis (literally "icon stand").
Traditionally, preparation for communion involves a strict fast and often includes abstaining from animal products and sexual relations from Wednesday through Saturday, and the addition of a number of preparatory canons to one's evening prayers (see Eucharistic discipline). Also, a complete fast (no food or drink) should be kept from sundown Saturday until after communing on Sunday. One should have one's confession heard and receive a blessing from the priest prior to receiving communion (though in keeping with the lack of legalism in Orthodoxy, the exact relation between confession and receiving communion varies between jurisdictions, regions and individuals). Because of all this preparation, some laity do not commune every Sunday, but may wait until a special holiday to commune so that he or she can properly prepare. The Orthodox take the mystery of communion very seriously because they believe this is the true Body and Blood of Christ Jesus. To receive the Mysteries unprepared would be spiritually damaging. Monastics, on the other hand, often receive communion every day because they continually fast, continually pray, and remain celibate. Because of the purity issue when considering preparation for communion, many men, even monks, will abstain from communion if they have experienced a nocturnal emission, and many women will abstain during their monthly cycle (see below - Fasting).
In modern practice, especially (but not exclusively) in the US, reception of communion is often more frequent (as it was in most of Church history), which some Orthodox Christians regard as contributing to a lack of seriousness regarding the sacrament, while others see this as a renewal of the spiritual life. It is the opinion of some traditionalists that frequent communion is dangerous spiritually if it reflects a lack of piety in approaching the most significant of the Mysteries, which would be damaging to the soul.
There are a number of pious practices that stem from the realization of this truth: the very idea that a particle of Christ’s Body and Blood might be discarded is unthinkable. At the end of the Divine Liturgy one of the clergy always remains behind in the altar in order to consume what remains of holy communion; he is very careful not to leave behind even the tiniest stray particle. In common practice, for a day following communion, anything that enters the mouth and is then removed (e.g., olive pits, grape seeds, etc.) is not thrown into the garbage but is burned. The napkin used to wipe the mouth after the meal is also burned. Orthodox should not spit, or smoke, or chew gum for the same reason. Orthodox also are careful if they are injured soon after communion to treat their own blood with the same care (since their blood and the Blood of Christ are united), burning it in the cloth used to stop it. In general, this way of dealing with the Mystery applies to anything sacred that needs to be “removed from use” due to its being damaged. The ashes of such items are usually sprinkled in a place where they will not be walked on (under a bush, in a flower garden, etc.).
Marriage is the sacred union of two people specifically for their mutual companionship and love. Procreation is not seen as the only reason for marriage as not all married couples can have children. The fact that intimacy between married adults creates a loving bond is paramount, and that union between the two is reflective of our ultimate union with God. In general, People who wish to be married within the Orthodox Church are ideally both Orthodox, though exceptions are made if one spouse is not. Priests and deacons may be married and have children if they marry before ordination. Bishops do not marry though it is possible that a widowed man may become a bishop. Marriage is considered a Mystery and a sacred vow that should last until one or the other spouse dies. While it is common in such cases that the remaining partner will retire to a monastery, there is no prescription against remarriage. Divorce is discouraged but allowed under certain conditions. Marriage is seen to be an earthly union only. As Christ said in answer to the Pharisees question, “In heaven they are neither married nor given in marriage, but they are like the angels”, So it is that marriage is earthly.
Almsgiving refers to any charitable giving of material resources to those in need. Like fasting, it is a practice carried over from Judaism and reinforced by Jesus and the authors of the New Testament, and has remained a prominent teaching. It is often coupled with fasting (see above), as consuming less food and less expensive food should free up more resources that can be given. It is also connected to the Eucharist, in which thanks is given for all things, and it is acknowledged that all things ultimately belong to God. Almsgiving is one of the most practical of Orthodox Christian practices.
Christianity was born and first spread in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire. Paul and the Apostles traveled extensively throughout the Empire, establishing Churches in major communities, with the first Churches appearing in Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, and then the two political centres of Rome and Constantinople. The Apostolic Succession was established and played a key role in the Church's view of itself as the preservation agent of the Christian community. Systematic persecution of Christians was initially endemic but finally stopped in 313 when Emperor Constantine the Great proclaimed the Edict of Milan. From that time forward, the Byzantine Emperor exerted various degrees of influence over the church (see Caesaropapism). Sometimes this was seen as positive, as in the calling of the Ecumenical Councils to resolve disputes and establish church dogma on which the entire church would agree. Sometimes this was seen as negative, as when Patriarchs (often of Constantinople) were deposed by the emperor, or when the emperor sided with the iconoclasts in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Several Ecumenical Councils were held between 325 (the First Council of Nicaea and 787 (the Second Council of Nicaea, and are seen by the Church as constituting the definitive interpretation of Christian dogma. Orthodox thinking differs on whether the Fourth and Fifth Councils of Constantinople were properly Ecumenical Councils, but the majority view is that they were merely influential, and not dogmatic.
Orthodox Christian culture reached its golden age during the high point of Byzantine Empire and continued to flourish in Russia after the fall of Constantinople. Numerous autocephalous jurisdictions were established in Eastern Europe and Slavic areas.
The Orthodox jurisdictions with the largest number of adherents in modern times are the Russian and the Romanian Orthodox churches. The most ancient of the Orthodox churches of today are the Churches of Constantinople, Alexandria, Georgia, Antioch, and Jerusalem.
There were several doctrinal disputes from the 4th century onwards. Some of them led to the calling of Ecumenical councils to try to resolve them. The Church in Egypt (Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following the Council of Chalcedon (451), owing to a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures of Jesus. Eventually this led to each group having its own Patriarch (Pope). Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs were called "Melkites" (the king's men, because Constantinople was the city of the emperors) [not to be confused with the Melkite Catholics of Antioch], and are today known as the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, until recently led by Pope Petros VII (who was killed in a helicopter crash on September 11, 2004), while those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon are today known as the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, led by Pope Shenouda III. There was a similar split in Syria. Those who disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called "Oriental Orthodox" to distinguish them from the Eastern Orthodox, who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. The Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as "monophysites", "non-Chalcedonians", or "anti-Chalcedonians", although today the Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is monophysite and prefers the term "miaphysite", to denote the "joined" nature of Jesus.
Note: The term Pope is simply an affectionate term for the lead bishop in a major patriarchate. Any of the original Patriarchs of Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople, Rome, or Alexandria can be called Pope as it is not an official title. The more common term today is Patriarch in order to distinguish them from the Pope in Rome who is not an Orthodox bishop.
An important symbol for Eastern Orthodoxy and its spread north to the Slavic peoples was the construction in the 530s of the Church of the Holy Wisdom ("Hagia Sophia"), a most impressive church building in Constantinople, under emperor Justinian I.
The Great Schism was not the first division to occur in the church, though it was by far the most significant. The earlier conflict between the Imperial Church and what are now called the Oriental Orthodox churches was established many centuries before at the fourth and fifth ecumenical councils. And, in some fundamental aspects, the Oriental Orthodox churches are as dissimilar from the Eastern Orthodox churches as they are from the Roman Catholic Church. Oriental Orthodox churches include the Coptic Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Malankara Orthodox Church, and the Armenian Church. These are all labelled 'monophysite' by some of the Eastern Orthodox, although they reject this label, preferring the term 'miaphysite'. The Assyrian Church of the East is also often included among this group, although it does not belong to the Oriental Orthodox Communion, and indeed, adheres to the doctrine of 'Nestorianism', directly opposed to the doctrine of the Oriental Orthodox. The main theological problem is usually traced back to the 5th century, with Saint Cyril's referring to the nature of Christ as being "One Theandric Nature". The term "Theandric" was taken by the main body of the church to mean "God/Man" and therefore really two natures, God and Man unified, while the remainder thought of it as one single nature. At first glance this may seem a trivial disagreement, but ultimately the question took hundreds of years to solidify because of its extreme complexity and eventually lead to this early split.
In the 7th century the areas administered by the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem were conquered by Muslim Arabs, and the native Christians were treated as second-class citizens, or dhimmi. Westerners tend to think of Christianity as the dominant social force for a long period of history, but Christians in three of the five ancient churches have been in Muslim-dominated societies for 13 centuries. The Islamic religion, generally speaking, strongly opposes the use of icons, especially in worship; this belief had a strong influence on Muslim relationships with the Christians under their government. It was the Muslims who first opposed the Christian use of icons, though many Christians held a similar doctrine, based on Judaizing tendencies within the Church. The use of icons was defended and upheld at the Seventh Ecumenical Council in Nicea in AD 787, called by Patriarch Tarasius and presided over by Empress Irene, where it was dogmatically established that Christians give honor not to the image itself but to the person the image represents. The end of that council is still celebrated as the "Triumph of Orthodoxy" in Orthodox churches today, and icons remain a central part of Orthodox faith and practice.
In the 11th century the Great Schism took place between Rome and Constantinople, which led to the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, to divorce itself from the Churches of the East. There were doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the authority of the Pope involved in the split, but these were exacerbated by cultural and linguistic differences.
The final breach is often considered to have arisen as a result of the sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. This Fourth Crusade had the Latin Church directly involved in a military assault against the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, and the Orthodox Patriarchate thereof. The sacking of the Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancor to the present day. In 2004, Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. (Many things that were stolen during this time: relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Catholic churches in Western Europe and have yet to be offered back to the Orthodox Church.)
In 1453, the last of the Roman Empire (with its capital at Constantinople) fell to the Ottoman Turks. By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia; and so Moscow, called the Third Rome, became a major new center of the Church at that time.
For nearly 1000 years, the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches were in union, with the Roman Pope being counted as one of the five major hierarchs, along with the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Constantinople. Growing theological and political division between Eastern and Western Christianity culminated in what is known as the Great Schism of 1054, though in fact their divergence began as much as two centuries earlier.
Both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox communions claim to be the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and reject the other's claim to this title. The term Orthodox was adopted by the Eastern Church to signify its adherence to, and preservation of, what it contends are the original apostolic traditions, teachings, and style of worship. Both churches, to signify the universality of the Church, retain the term "Catholic". Both churches also continue to claim apostolic succession.
The most visible, and perhaps most significant, point of difference between the two churches is their ecclesiology, and definitions of papal primacy. The Orthodox Church views all bishops as fundamentally equal, and rejects the idea that one patriarch may have authority (aside from a moral authority) over another's jurisdiction. The Patriarch of Constantinople currently enjoys the honorary title of "First Among Equals" - although the more senior Patriarchs are accorded positions of respect and deference, at a basic level the Church leadership is collegial. This primacy, in the view of the Orthodox, is the same position that was held by the Roman Pope during the earliest of the ecumenical councils. As the nexus of political power within the Roman Empire moved from Rome to Constantinople, so did the leadership of the ecumenical councils. The Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, views the Patriarch of Rome as the supreme head of the Church and ascribes to him wide-ranging authority on all matters of Church theology and administration, going so far as to adopt the doctrine of papal infallibility in certain specific contexts.
Another major distinction between the two churches is the Roman Catholic acceptance of the insertion of the Filioque clause into the Nicene Creed. This clause, which describes the Holy Spirit as proceding from both the Father and the Son, is taken by the Orthodox Churches to be an egregious misunderstanding of the Holy Spirit's nature and importance.
After the split, Roman Catholics defined other dogmas that the Eastern Orthodox also considers heretical, among them papal infallibility, the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, and purgatory. The See of Rome considers the Eastern Orthodox churches to be in schism. The general Orthodox consensus is that Roman Catholics are both schismatics and heretics, although a minority of Orthodox Christians believe that the difference in reality is smaller than it appears superficially.
It is difficult to state a "definitive" doctrinal position held by the entire Orthodox Church with regard to the status and doctrines of Rome, since due to its structure, the Eastern Orthodox Church rarely issues wide-ranging definitive pronouncements applying to the whole community, even on matters upon which there is widespread internal agreement. Such authoritative pronouncements are viewed to the function of an ecumenical council, the last of which was held in 787 AD (though some Orthodox regard there to have been eight or nine ecumenical councils, the last one thus being in the 9th or 14th centuries, respectively).
In the ninth and tenth centuries, Orthodoxy made great inroads into Eastern Europe, including Kievan Rus'. This work was made possible by the work of Saints Cyril and Methodius, who translated the Bible and many of the prayer books into Slavonic. Originally sent to convert the Slavs of Great Moravia, they were forced to compete with Frankish missionaries from the Roman diocese. Their disciples were driven out of Great Moravia in AD 886.
Some of the disciples, however, reached Bulgaria where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian Tsar Boris I who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methoduis managed to prepare and instruct the future Slav Bulgarian clergy into the Glagolitic alphabet and the biblical texts and in AD 893, Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the Slavonic language as the official language of the church and the state. The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other Slavic peoples, most notably the Rus', predecessors of Belarusians, Russians, and Ukrainians.
Slavic missionaries had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than Latin as the Roman priests did, or Greek. Today the Russian Orthodox Church, in spite of 70 years of persecution under the atheistic government of the USSR, is the largest of the Orthodox Churches.
Orthodoxy did not undergo the Reformation, and attitudes of the Protestant churches towards it have been ambiguous since the beginning. Lutheran bishops led by Melanchthon sent delegates to the Patriarch of Constantinople to explore ecumenical possibilities, but the discussions went nowhere. Both sides remained cordial and fraternal, but fundamental doctrinal differences came to light, specifically regarding Holy Tradition, the Procession of the Holy Spirit, free will, divine predestination, justification, the number of sacraments, baptism by immersion (Orthodox) vs. sprinkling or pouring (Lutheran), and the immediate performance of chrismation and the giving of the Eucharist to those baptized (Orthodox), the meaning of the change in the Eucharist, and the use of unleavened bread, infallibility of the Church and of the Ecumenical Councils, veneration, feasts, and invocation of saints and their icons and relics, fasts and other ecclesiastical traditions. Ultimately, the dialogue was broken off (see 16th Century Lutheran & Orthodox Exchange in External links below).
The Russian Orthodox Church sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century. Among the first was Saint Herman of Alaska. This established missionary precedence for the Russian Orthodox Church in the Americas, and Eastern Orthodox Christians were under the omophor (Church authority and protection) of the Patriarch of Moscow. The Russian Orthodox Church was devastated by the Bolshevik Revolution. One side effect was the flood of refugees from Russia to the United States, Canada, and Europe. Among those who came were Orthodox lay people, deacons, priests, and bishops. In 1920 Patriarch Tikhon issued an ukase (decree) that Orthodox Christians under his leadership but outside of Russia should seek refuge with whatever Orthodox jurisdiction that would shield them from Communist control. The various national Orthodox communities thus were permitted as an emergency measure to look towards their immigrant homelands for ecclesiastic leadership rather than be tied to Russia. Some of the Russian Orthodox formed an independent synod that became the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR). Some of the Russian Orthodox remained in communion with Moscow and were granted autocephaly in 1970 as the Orthodox Church in America (OCA, though rarely referred to as "TOCA"). However, recognition of this autocephalic status is not universal, as the Ecumenical Patriarch (under whom is the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America) and some other jurisdictions have not officially accepted it. The reasons for this are complex; nevertheless the Ecumenical Patriarch and the other jurisdictions remain in communion with the OCA.
Today there are many Orthodox churches in the United States and Canada that are still bound to the Greek, Antiochian, or other overseas jurisdictions; in some cases these different overseas jurisdictions will have churches in the same U.S. city. However, there are also many "pan-orthodox" activities and organizations, both formal and informal, among Orthdox believers of all jurisdictions. One such organization is SCOBA, the Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas, which comprises North American Orthodox bishops from nearly all jurisdictions. (See list of Orthodox jurisdictions in North America.)
There is a general acknowledgment that the situation, which is canonical neither in the spirit nor the letter of the law, should not continue as it is indefinitely, and that at some point all the Orthodox churches in the U.S. will need to be united under a single Metropolitan or Patriarch. There is also a general acknowledgment that this can be taken care of slowly over time. In June of 2002, the Antiochian Orthodox Church granted self-rule to the Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North America. Some observers see this as a step towards greater organizational unity in North America. Note that this future American Orthodox Church will be a church of Americans, for people who consider themselves Americans and speak primarily or only the English or Spanish languages; people who retain their original nationality and/or whose primary language is not English will most likely remain members of their churches, and their churches' activities will continue.
During the past 50 years there have come into existence so-called Western Orthodox Churches (a term not in use by the majority of Orthodox Christians, including those within Western Rite Orthodox parishes) in North America. These are Orthodox Christians who use the Western forms of liturgy yet are totally Orthodox in their theology. The Antiochian Orthodox Church, The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, and the Holy Orthodox Catholic and Apostolic Church of America (formerly connected with the Vicar Bishop of the (Western) Orthodox Church of France-ECOF), all have Western Rite parishes. The last jurisdiction currently has no canonical ties to the majority of Orthodox Christianaity and at best would be considered a fringe schismatic group by them.
Eastern Orthodoxy has had a history in China and East Asia as well.
The various local churches within the Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in full communion with one another. Most importantly, these groups recognize that the Grace of God is present and working within the other. The term "full communion" can be misleading in this instance since there have sometimes existed within the Church legitimate groups that for legitimate reasons disagree with one another's position. In such a case the normal response is to refrain from concelebration of the services and communing mysteriologically (sacramentally) without considering the other groups to be without Grace and outside the body of the church. An example of this is the lack of communion between the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) and the Moscow Patriarchate (the Orthodox Church of Russia) dating from the 1920s and due to the subjection of the latter to the hostile soviet regime. Another example is the philosophical differences between the New Calendarists and the Moderate Old Calendarists.
All bishops of the Orthodox Church are equal in terms of Apostolic authority. There is no Orthodox equivalent of the Roman Catholic Papacy, which is to say there is no single earthly head of the church. That position is reserved for Jesus Christ alone. A bishop is charged with representing Christ to his local church, so in that sense all Orthodox bishops are equally "vicars of Christ" and none of them are able to lay a unique claim to that title. Therefore, attachment to a single, specific hierarch such as the Ecumenical Patriarch (of Constantinople) is not a litmus test for Orthodoxy, as there have been heretics and schismatics in even that venerable position. The legitimacy of a bishop, even within his own jurisdiction is in how well he "rightly divide[s] (Orthotomeo) the Word of Truth" (i.e. in how well he teaches his congregations the Orthodox way), not necessarily in how many other bishops are in communion with him. There has been at least one time when “error” almost overwhelmed the church (see the life of St Maximos the Confessor). It has been said that if the entire church were reduced down to a single person in the whole world, the church would still be whole and complete, and from that one individual could spring a rebirth of truth. Main article: Eastern Orthodox Church organization
The first thing to consider when dealing with "jurisdictions" is that they apply to the clergy, not to lay persons. The different Orthodox jurisdictions are united in faith and in liturgy, but not necessarily in polity. There is only One Church regardless of nationality or culture. Laypeople do develop loyalties to the particular jurisdiction they grew up with, or were first accepted into, but should the person choose to “switch jurisdictions” there is no penalty. Jurisdictions govern the priesthood and its administrative policies thus, bishops do not interfere in one another’s territories; as their authority does not extend beyond it. There is no single bishop or similar office that corresponds to the Roman Catholic Pope, nor is there a standing synod of bishops or patriarchs. In general, the church is organized along national and regional lines in hierarchical fashion, with the "top" hierarchs or patriarchs recognizing one another's validity. From about the fourth century the churches with the largest administrative base were Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Today there are approximately 15 separate autocephalous jurisdictions who recognize the validity of each other (though this relationship may be complicated); these are the "canonical" Orthodox Churches. Churches that call themselves Orthodox but are not recognized as valid by this group are termed "non-canonical" Orthodox Churches (though this too can be a complex relationship).
Orthodox Christians believe that they have preserved apostolic succession from the first Apostles. While Rome traces its papacy back to the Apostle Peter, Orthodox Antioch traces its Patriarchate to an even earlier foundation by the selfsame Apostle. Alexandria, for example, traces its papacy back to Mark the Evangelist, who founded the church in Alexandria in AD 40. (In Alexandria, two primates call themselves "Pope" and claim to be the successor of the apostle Mark: the Eastern Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria, also called the "Pope of Africa", and the Coptic Pope. Those two lines of succession separated from each other in a schism in AD 451. Coptic Catholics (one of the autonomous Eastern Rite Catholic churches) also have a high-ranking bishop called the "Patriarch of Alexandria" in that city, but he does not claim the title of "Pope".)
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See autocephaly
Not everything in the Orthodox Church is labeled or defined; quite the contrary. There have often been issues within the Church that caused differing opinions about an aspect of the Church's beliefs. Those that were greatest among these controversies led ultimately to a general council where the heresies were uprooted and the truth of the Church reestablished. One of the aspects of the Church that has been called into question in this modern day is the question of Tradition especially in regards to the Calendar. Since the 1920s when the Patriarch of Constantinople, Meletios Metaxakis adopted the New Calendar (officially called the "Revised Julian Calendar," but sometimes referred to incorrectly as the "Gregorian/Papal Calendar") there have been a number of reactionary groups within the church, usually called Old Calendarists. These Old Calendarists can be divided into two main groups based on the scope of their argument; the Zealots (or "Extremists") and the Moderates. Both groups are regarded as schismatics by some within the Church, however this may not be a valid label for the Moderates.
The Churches in Resistance regard themselves as following the example of St. Maximos the Confessor (662 A.D.), who stood alone against the majority of the Church in opposition to the Monothelite heresy. Likewise claiming to be functioning within the established canonical boundaries of the Church, the Churches in Resistance have chosen to react to the perceived ecumenism in modern Orthodoxy by refraining from concelebrating the Divine Liturgy with those whom they regard as ecumenists. It should be understood, however, that they do not condemn the New Calendarists for their position but seek rather a general council to clarify this conflict.
They will commune the faithful from all the canonical jurisdictions and are recognized by and in communion with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (who themselves use the Old Calendar). Their canonical status is often questioned by the mainstream Orthodox for failure to comply with the majority of the Church, while the Traditionalists point out that compliance with Church refers to the entire Church stretching back 2000 years to Christ, not the New Calendarists that have existed for only a few decades. The example of the arguments of St. Maximos are proof that compliance with the majority is not a requirement of the Church, nor can a local church be justifiably removed from the Church without a general council. It should also be noted, in the case of St Maximos, that he was also considered to be a schismatic and outside the church while at the same time he never condemned the church, thus he followed the proper procedure in holding his position. Had he declared himself to be the sole remaining Orthodox then he would have truly been a schismatic. It might be said that the Moderate Old Calendarists have been especially careful to retain a position that both champions their traditional point of view while not being radical enough to constitute a break from rest of the church.
Isolated Orthodox jurisdictions
The Old Calendar Church of Greece represents a group of Orthodox who claim to be the sole remaining True Orthodox left in the world, e.g., "Paleoimerologites". They are not in communion with any other group. Other groups are not in communion with other Orthodox jurisdictions due to recent political upheavals or due to hierarchical schisms that do not necessarily reflect doctrinal disagreement.
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St. Sava Serbian Orthodox Church
Hillsborough County and Pinellas County Florida
